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Using Other Sources in Your Writing |
Last Updated: December 28, 2003
When you first start to do scholarly papers, the skill of using a citation properly needs to be developed. Citations are needed when you paraphrase an idea from another source as well as when information is quoted. (Beginners tend to use too many quotes - paraphrase unless the exact wording is very important.). The exact format used in citations depends on the style required of the writer. (Most nursing schools require the APA style.) Some of the errors that I have found in papers besides omitting a citation are citations for information that did not come from the cited source (Erroneous citation) and personalizing a citation, i.e. writing such that a reader could believe that the source referred directly to a personal situation. Another error involves secondary sources, or ideas cited in a resource by the author of that resource, but from a resource not seen by the writer.
The following examples illustrate some of these concepts.
Example 1
The following is a statement from a paper using a citation.
Computer viruses are similar to disease causing viruses because they use the resources of the host to replicate (Thede, 1999). The similarity ends there because they do not generate spontaneously, but are purposely created by humans."
The following two sentences are the source of the above citation.
"Similar to viruses that cause disease in humans, computer viruses replicate using the resources of the host without the consent of the host. Unlike disease-causing viruses, computer viruses do not generate spontaneously; they are made by humans."
From Thede, L. Q. (1999). Computers in Nursing: Bridges to the Future. Philadelphia: Lippincott, p 124.
Explanation
This citation gave credit to the author for the idea.
Example 2
Below is a correct use of a source to adds credibility
When a list is used as part of standardized terminology, each term must be mutually exclusive. Lists are a good option when the choices are finite (Thede, 2001)
The following two paragraphs are the source of the above citation.
Linear lists are the most common type of language because they are the simplest and easiest to use (Hoy & Hardiker, 1999). They use no grouping principles. Many information systems use such a list for various items. For these to be effective, each term must be mutually exclusive as well as have a clear definition. A list of body locations that contained both leg and thigh would violate the principle of mutual exclusion, a location can be both on the thigh and the leg. Remember, these are NOT taxonomies, these are simple lists. They can be very effective for some things and they preserve the principle that databases need of identical characters being used for a given entity. An example would be the list that is presented to you when you fill out a form on a web site and are entering the data for the state or country in which you live. A thesaurus such as the Unified Medical Language Metathesaurus (Henry & Mead, 1997) is also a list.
Lists are best suited to situations in which the choices are relatively finite, such as a list of states or the types of obstetrical delivery. If one tries to create a list of nursing items that add value to health care it soon becomes obvious that the needed list is going to be unmanageable. Additionally, the lack of a mechanism for grouping the terms would cause difficulties with organizing, accessing, retrieving, and analyzing the information. Thus, they are not really suitable for a nursing language. This does not mean that they cannot be a starting point for a standardized terminology. The North American Nursing Diagnosis Association (NANDA) terminology and Nursing Interventions Classification (NIC) both started as alphabetical lists.
(Text is from an unpublished paper by Thede, 2001)
Explanation
The idea came from these two paragraphs, but for the author's purpose, only the general idea was needed, not the detail.
Example 1
Below is an erroneous use a citation
The University of South Australia implemented a computer database for developing nursing care plans in 1996 for the second year nursing students. After the implementation of computer technology in the classroom, the teachers noted an increase in the critical thinking skills of the students (Cheek, Gilham & Mills, 1996)
The text that was assumed to support the above citation (note British spellings are intended)
"Analysis of student learning indicated that those aspects of PBL [problem based learning] identified by Candy et al. (1994, p140) as the use of "critical, creative, logical and lateral thinking skills" had been satisfied through the use of computer assisted activities. Students responded enthusiastically producing completed scenario based care plans prior to each weekly session. While exact reasons for the positive response from students will only be obtained when the project has been fully evaluated, the four I's of good teaching described by Feletti (1993, p154) as Interesting, Interactive, Integrated and Independent seem to have been satisfied. "
From: Cheek, J., Gillham, D. & Mills, P. (1996). Using a computerised clinical database to enhance problem-based learning strategies for second year undergraduate nursing students. Australian Electronic Journal of Nursing Education (2), 2. Retrieved from http://www.scu.edu.au/schools/nhcp/aejne/vol2-2/v2-2jc.htm on April 8, 2001.
Explanation
This writer interpreted this statement to mean that there was an increase in critical thinking skills. This is NOT what the writer said. You cannot put words into the writer's pen. You can check out the entire article - there is absolutely no mention of the use of computer technology increasing the critical thinking skills of students anyplace. Thus this use of a citation casts great doubt on the credibility of the writer - and makes everything written by the writer in that document suspect.
Example 2
A too broad interpretation of source
Faculty should learn to use clinical databases in nursing education in order to provide an up to date example of the nursing care that is needed in clinical settings (Cheek, Gilham & Mills, 1996).
Text from the Cheek, J., Gillham, D. & Mills, P. (1996) article used to make the above citation.
"The use of clinical databases in nursing education has distinct advantages. The major advantage of care planning databases is that they provide an up to date example of the nursing care carried out in the clinical setting. Nursing students are quick to recognise the importance of any efforts to minimise the theory-practice gap and value the opportunity to direct their own learning using real life scenarios and a current computerised database."
Explanation
Here the writer has changed completely the meaning of the above quotation by adding her or his own wish to what has been written.
Avoid insinuating that the writer addressed your personal situation.
Example of personalizing a citation from a paper by Student A
The use of color, as well as the conciseness of the material, in the program we designed was appreciated by the users (Thede, Taft, & Coeling).
Text used as a basis for the citation
"Other factors that students enjoyed were color and conciseness of the presentation. The feature liked most was the questions."
Thede, L. Q., Taft, S, & Coeling, H. (1994). Computer-assisted instruction: A learners' viewpoint. Journal of Nursing Education 33(7), 299-305.
Explanation
When one reads the statement and citation one would assume that the authors of the source (Thede, Taft, & Coeling) were writing about the program designed by Student A.
A correct use of the information by Student A
Thede, Taft & Coeling (1994) found that students enjoyed color and conciseness in a computer-assisted program. These principles were followed in my program.
Explanation of Difference
In the above example, Student A cites what Thede, Taft & Coeling wrote, and then states how this information was used.
To use an idea or thought from a source, but to state it in your own words. Generally preferable to a direct quote. Items paraphrased must be cited. (Back to text)
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